Tuesday, October 29, 2019

The development of travel and tourism industry Dissertation

The development of travel and tourism industry - Dissertation Example This paper outlines also the current developments of tourism. Low cost airlines â€Å"Evidence in the Europe and the U.S. indicates that the leading LFAs [low-fare airlines] fared significantly better than their full-fare rivals in the wake of the terrorist attacks on the U.S.,† wrote Thomas Lawton, author of Cleared for Take-Off: Structure and Strategy in the Low-Fare Airline Business, in the November 2003 Irish Journal of Management. â€Å"While established rivals cut staff, grounded aircraft and even collapsed into bankruptcy, the LFAs continue to open new routes and order new aircraft. LFAs are more resilient than traditional airlines to market downturns.† Europe deregulated its skies in 1997 and there has been no looking back as far as the travel and tourism boom is concerned. The low cost airline like Ryan Air, Excel Jet and Budget Air have offered the passengers no frill airlines and this has fuelled a lot of travel. This has exceedingly lowered the prices making holiday travels very affordable. For this reason these airlines have steadily gained market share. An old adage about cruises painted the typical passenger as "newlywed, overfed or nearly dead," but demographics for cruises are changing. A million children took cruises in 2002, double the number from 1998, according to the Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA), which represents 21 cruise lines. A five-day, $500 (or less) trip to a warm place (meals included), available in many markets; prices being affordable even for middle-class families.

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Relationship Between Motivational Beliefs and Education

Relationship Between Motivational Beliefs and Education Background to Research Adequately meeting the varying needs of an increasingly diverse population of students is a major challenge for education. To face this challenge educational researchers have explored a variety of areas within the students educational experience to examine the effects on students. Many studies of the experiences, characteristics and needs of students at various grade levels and age groups have been conducted. There is a general consensus that the needs, interests, preferences and characteristics of the students change with the social, economic, and technological changes around them. Provision of the best environment and conditions that support better learning and development of students is on the educational reform agenda worldwide (UNESCO, 1998). Research has emphasized the need and importance of students views and opinions about their learning experiences, while planning and providing supportive conditions and facilities for learning (Leckey Neill, 2001, Nicholls, 2002). The Islamic Republic of Pakistan came into being in 1947. It has an estimated population of 164.8 Million (Population Census organization, 2008) with an overall literacy rate of 51.6 % (Government of Pakistan, 2005). Education in Pakistan is divided into five levels, Primary (grades one through five), Middle (grades six through eight), High (grades nine and ten, leading to Secondary School certificate), Intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to a higher Secondary School Certificate), and Higher Education (education above grades 12) leading to a bachelor degree (BA/BSC) after two years of study mostly at affiliated colleges. A Masters Degree or Postgraduate degree is mostly undertaken at universities and requires another two years of study. At the time of independence in 1947 there were only two universities, the University of the Punjab, Lahore and the University of Dhaka. At present there are 67 universities in the public sector and 57 in the private (Higher Education Commission, 2005). Currently there are approximately 32, 8603 students enrolled in postgraduate programmes (MA/MSc) with more females (53%) than males currently enrolled (Government of Pakis tan, 2003). Since independence the quality of education at all levels has been a concern in Pakistan. Most of the efforts directed at quality enhancement have been targeted towards primary and secondary education, but during late 1990s higher education became the major concern of the government and this has been expressed in its policies and plans (Government of Pakistan, 1998, 2004, 2005). Responding to unprecedented expansion in higher education, formalized and systematic quality assurance mechanisms began to evolve in the early 2000s, with the establishment of Higher Education Commission (HEC). Most of the efforts at reform designed to improve the quality of higher education have been directed toward physical inputs, teacher training, and material resources (Government of Pakistan, 2004, 2005). There has also been increasing recognition that conventional approaches to curriculum, pedagogy and organization in higher education do not always lead to excellence and quality (Government of Pakistan , 2001). However what is missing in these discussion concerning strategies for enhancing quality of higher education in Pakistan is students opinions about their learning and their learning experiences. Being a part of the higher education community in Pakistan, issues of higher education quality have been of increasing concern and interest to me. My experience of teaching at the University of the Punjab (Lahore), Pakistan, during the last ten years have led to the development of an interest in the study of motivational beliefs and learning experiences of the postgraduate students. The University of the Punjab is one of the oldest and largest universities of Pakistan. Established in the 1882, the University is comprised of 4 Campuses, 13 Faculties, 9 constituent colleges, and 64 Departments and Centers. Currently students feedback about their learning is obtained at the level of individual units or courses but there is no systematic procedure for evaluating students overall experience of learning at the level of whole course or degree. In Pakistan postgraduate students join the university after completing 10 years of study at school and 4 years of study at college. Postgraduate stud ents who attend university in Pakistan are thus engaged in higher education for a minimum of four years. Their long academic experience means they are in a position to judge the nature and quality of their experiences of learning at university but they are never given a chance to do so except at the unit level and they are not asked about their goals, aspirations and motivations. Research in western higher education systems shows that the students are best placed to comment about many aspects of quality of education and their ratings are considered to be valid, multidimensional and reliable (Marsh, 1987; Ramsden 1991; Leckey Niell, 2001). Many studies have also been conducted on students motivational beliefs and learning in higher education and well developed instruments such as Course Experience Questionnaire (CEQ) and Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) have been employed to explore the motivational beliefs of the students and to study the impact of various other factors on the students experiences of teaching, curriculum and assessment and learning in western higher education. A systematic use of the findings of these studies has provided a strong basis for the improvement of the quality of student learning in higher education (Watson, 2003; Harvey, 2003). Much of the research on student learning and higher education has been conducted in developed countries like the USA, UK and Australia (Watson, 2003; Harvery, 2003, Pascarella Terenzini, 1998; Wilson .Lozzio Ramsden, 1997; Diseth, 2003; Diseth Pallesen, Hoveland Larsen, 2006) with very few studies be conducted in the Asian contexts (see Salili, 1996). No studies of this nature have been conducted in the Pakistani context. However the researchers in the field of motivation and learning have increasingly highlighted the importance of conducting research in different cultural and social contexts (Byrne Flood, 2008; Schunk, Pintrich Meece, 2008; Kaplan Maehr, 2006).According to Pintrich and Zusho (2007) cultural and social context can have mojor effect on the motivational beliefs as well as on the outcomes of education and research is needed to explore whether various models of learning and motivation can be generalized and do the various motivational constructs operate similarly among various cultures. Therefore findings and implications of the research on hig her education in western contexts, need to be explored further in the social, economic and cultural context of Pakistan. Such research is needed to get an insight into motivational profile and learning experiences of the student at the postgraduate level in Pakistan, where the percentage of female students at postgraduate level (53 %) is higher than male students. These figures for females sit in stark contrast to the lower literacy rate for females (39.2%) across the country (Government of Pakistan, 2005) and where future job prospects for qualified people are very low (Husain, 2005).The overall unemployment rate in Pakistan is 7.8 % (Government of Pakistan, 2008) whereas no statistics are available for different groups such as people with bachelors degrees, masters degrees and professional degrees. There is hardly any research conducted in Pakistan that could provide an insight into students motivational beliefs and their experiences of learning at the postgraduate level. A literature search identified just two recent studies about students approaches to learning in higher education in Pakistan. Siddiqui (2006) investigated study approaches of Pakistani students in tertiary institutions by using a revised version of the Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F). The sample comprised 13,331 students who appeared at 15 centers for National Postgraduate Scholarship Examination in December 2003. The results showed that the students predominantly had higher scores on deep approach. No statistically significant differences were observed on the basis of gender, age and highest qualification, but there were significant differences for various fields of study. Akhtar (2007) conducted a comparative study of approaches to study used by students in pre-service teacher education programs at th e University of the Punjab (Lahore), Pakistan and the University of Edinburgh, UK. The study showed that the students from both universities perceived their learning environment in a similar way, but that a surface approach to learning was found to be more dominant among the Pakistani students. Due to lack of research on higher education students in Pakistan, my proposed study of the motivational beliefs and the experiences of learning in various disciplines of study at the University of the Punjab is expected to be the first in Pakistan to investigate the relationship between the motivational beliefs and learning at postgraduate level in Pakistan. This study will provide an understanding of the factors affecting the learning processes at the University of the Punjab and may serve as a basis for the improvement of academic programs and students learning experiences in Pakistani universities more generally. In a range of Western countries, many research studies have established the impact of motivational beliefs on self regulation and educational achievement (Pintrich DeGroot, 1990; Eccles, Wigfield Schiefele, 1998); Pintrich Zusho, 2007) but no research has explored the relationship between motivational beliefs and experiences of learning at postgraduate level. This is a n important issue in Pakistan where postgraduates do not necessarily expect to find suitable work after completion of their qualification. The results of the study will also help to understand and suggest to the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, some practical and feasible initiatives to highlight the importance of students views in the current efforts of the Government to enhance the quality of university education. Literature Review The following section discusses and examines the concept of students learning experiences in higher education sector. After a brief review of recent changes in the higher education and how the exploration of student experiences have been used to improve the quality of education, this review discuses various perspectives on learning to provide an account of how experience of learning has been conceptualized so far and what is needed to be explored further to develop our understanding of student learning in higher education. The Changing Face of Higher Education Worldwide there has been shift in the nature, structure, function and the financing of the university system (Biggs, 2003). In universities in developed countries these changes are quite evident through the expansion of technology, more diverse student population, increased demand for accountability and emphasis on research and performance related funding. Studies in Australia and other countries of the world serve to highlight some of the significant changes in the nature of student population over the last decade. For instance, in the UK 21% of full-time students at the start of their degree in 2005 were over the age of 21 (Robotham, 2008). Similarly, Studies by McInnis, James Hartley (2000) in Australia reveal other important changes when they note an increase in the proportion of full-time students who are working part-time and students seeking more choice in the subjects, delivery modes, assessment activities and facilities provided by the universities. Due to this growing diversity of the student population and rapidly changing social, technological and economic contexts, mass systems of the higher education in USA and Australia are now faced with the challenge of complexity of the student learning (James 2001, Pascarella and Terenzizni, 1998). According to Biggs (2003) a greater proportion of school leavers with diverse experiences, socio- economic status and cultural backgrounds are now joining higher education, they have to pay more tuition fees, study in large class sizes with fewer teachers and have to choose from more vocationally oriented courses. While discussing the challenge of the growing diversity of the student population and the influences of a number of demographic, institutional, economic and technological forces in the context of the USA, Pascarella and Terenzizni (1998) argue that these changes have significant implications for understanding the impact of college on students and require us to rethink about students experiences of learning. They further argue that these challenges require us to rethink students experiences of learning and redefine the outcomes of college and university education. In developed and developing countries like Pakistan more students are now aspiring to join institutions of higher education and there is a significant increase in the number of universities accommodating this new student population. Over the course of the later part of the twentieth century there was a world wide expansion of higher education institutions and enrollments. In 1900 roughly 500,000 students were enrolled in higher education institutions world wide, representing only one percent of college age population, whereas by the year 2000, this number had grown two hundredfold to approximately 100 million people, or 20 percent of the cohort worldwide (Schofer Meyer, 2005). At the time of the creation of Pakistan in 1947, there were only two universities, but after 1999-2000 there was a sharp increase in the number of public and private universities as the government showed the clear commitment to improving the higher education (Government of Pakistan 2004)., There was a significant increase in the spending on tertiary education (15.7% of the total Ed. Expenditure). At present there are 67 universities in public sector in Pakistan and 57 in the private. Despite the fact that only 3.7 percent of the 18 to 23 age cohort participates in higher education, the student enrollment at the University of the Punjab alone has increased from 10,000 to 30,000 over the last eight years (Iqbal, 2008). There are no empirical studies and little literature available on the demographic and economic characteristics, expectations, and experiences of students in Pakistani higher education institutions. To sum up, it can be said that as a consequence of the changes in the nature and context of higher education, the relationship between universities and students has also changed (James, 2001). Further, learning at university has become far more complex than it has been before. With the changing face of higher education, the factors that can have an impact on student learning in higher education have also become manifold, including personal factors (e.g. age, gender, prior experience and motivation of students) and contextual factors (e.g. teaching and learning activities, courses and content of study, facilities, resources and social environment. In other words, the impacts of wider changes in the context of higher education appear to be filtering down to the level of the individual student. Student Views and Quality of Higher Education Changes in the nature and provision of higher education have meant that the collection of feedback from students and the importance of students views and experiences of learning is on the agenda world wide. Students evaluations of courses and teaching are considered to be an important measure and indicator of educational quality (Marsh, 1987; Leckey Neill, 2001, Harvey, 2003). Universities in the UK, USA and Australia regularly collect student feedback to improve the quality of higher education. According to Leckey and Neill (2001) many papers have been written about students evaluation of teaching quality and many authors (such as Marsh, 1987, Kuh, 1999, Vesper Kuh, 1997) have published the review of these thereby supporting the continuing use of student evaluations. The importance of student feedback to universities can be seen in the growth of student involvement in university decision-making. For example in Sweden the Swedish government passed a bill in 2000 to give representat ion to students in university decision-making bodies (Swedish Government, 1999) In the UK a variety of mechanisms is being used both at the local level (faculty, school, course, and module) and institutional level (for example, graduate surveys) to get students feedback (Leckey Neill, 2001). At the national level, student surveys were introduced in 2005, to collect feedback from students on the quality of courses in order to contribute to public accountability, as well as to help inform the choices of future applicants coming to higher education (Harvey, 2003). In the USA there are three major types of surveys used to gather data on students experiences of learning, namely the College Student Experience Questionnaire (used since 1983 by about 500 colleges and universities), the College Students Expectation Questionnaire (used since 1996, with over 61,000 students at more than 60 institutions) and the National Survey of Student Engagement (began in 1998). The National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) obtains, on an annual basis, information about student participation in programs and activities that institutions provide for their learning and personal development. The results provide an estimate of how undergraduates spend their time and what they gain from attending college (NSSE, 2003). Similarly, in Australia, since 1993 all graduates in universities have been invited annually to complete the Course Experience Questionnaire. As a result of various investigations and analyses of these surveys since then, many important aspects (e.g quality of teaching, availability of recourses and social climate of the institutions) of learning in higher education have been discovered. Differences in students evaluations have been noted within different subject areas and disciplines (Ramsden, 2003). The Graduate career Council of Australia (GCCA) considers students perceptions of curriculum, instruction and assessment as key determinants of their approach to learning and the quality of the outcomes of that learning. The CEQ is considered a valuable instrument for the purpose of improving the quality of teaching in universities and also for informing student choice, managing institutional performance and promoting accountability of the higher education sector (McInnis, Griffin, Jame s Coates, 2001). A synthesis of the literature from the above section shows that students self reported surveys and questionnaires are the most commonly used method for getting feedback from students and evaluating their experiences of learning. Self report questionnaires are considered to be very useful for assessing those outcomes of higher education that can not be measured by achievement tests (Kuh Vesper, 1997, Watson, 2003). Further Pike (1995) has argued that self reports of experiences were found to be highly correlated with relevant achievement test scores. The literature shows that student evaluation of teaching quality in higher education is a well-recognised practice in the developed countries. There has been growing support for the use of student satisfaction surveys as an indicator of teaching quality (Alridge Rowley, 1998). Furthermore, Murray (1997) reports that the use of these surveys has led to measurable improvements in teaching quality. As such, student feedback can be used as an effective tool for quality enhancement. Harvey (1995) also emphasised that student satisfaction goes hand in hand with the development of a culture of continuous quality improvement. In contrast to developed countries the concept of inclusion of the students in the mechanisms of quality improvement is comparatively new to the developing countries like Pakistan. Currently students evaluations of the individual teachers at the University of the Punjab, Pakistan are generally used as a means of providing feedback to the teachers rather than as means o f improving the quality of student learning. According to Byrne and Flood (2004) the evaluation of teaching at the course level (i.e. full course of study such as degree program) rather than at individual unit/module level is more positively accepted by staff and is considered to be more appropriate for maintaining and enhancing quality at institution level .My study of students experiences of learning may provide basis for the development of a systematic way of obtaining student feedback at the level of whole course/degree, on regular basis and to use it as a means for the improvement of quality of student learning at University of the Punjab. The Contemporary Perspectives on Learning Experiences The experience of joining an institution of higher education is a significant event or turning point for an individual (Wintage, 2007), in that it provides for a transition to another stage of education and life experiences. Research indicates that the early experiences of students in higher education systems are vital in establishing attitudes and outlooks that are carried forward throughout the course and that these views and beliefs are critical to success (Wintage, 2007). However, these effects sometimes do not show themselves until the second year of a program of study or even later (Wright, 1982). Most of the research on learning in higher education has been focused on the undergraduate students, while postgraduate students have been a comparatively neglected group (Lindsay, Breen Jenkins, 2002). Although a substantial number of studies (see Schevens, 2003; Meyer Kiley; 1998; Rowley Slack, 1998; Haggis, 2002) have been conducted with postgraduate research students and intern ational postgraduate students exploring the issues of cultural and academic adjustment in international universities, it is hard to find studies specifically conducted to explore the experiences of postgraduate students enrolled in taught degrees which is the case in Pakistan. However the research on various aspects of higher education has lead to a better understanding of student experiences of learning (i.e students needs, problems, preferences and choices) in higher education. Learning in higher education is considered to be complex and multidimensional in nature and it has been viewed from various perspectives as discussed in the following section. Approaches to Learning Perspective The origins of approaches to learning perspective can be traced back to a series of studies conducted by Marton and Sà ¤ljà ¶ in the late 1970s (Cuthbert, 2005). Using phenomenography, these researchers looked at the qualitative aspects of the university students learning. The group of researchers under this perspective focused on the outcomes of learning and described different categories of learning outcomes in terms of the intentions of the students in starting a learning task and the process used to carry out those tasks. Originally two approaches i.e. deep and surface were formulated by Marton and Saljo (1976) and subsequent research by Entwistle and Ramsden (1983) added to this pair the strategic approach. This perspective has provided an explanation of various outcomes exhibited by students. For example, a surface approach to learning was associated with a focus on rote learning, memorisation and reproduction, a lack of reflection, a preoccupation with completing the task an d extrinsic value, whereas a deep approach was associated with holistic style with an intention to understand, the use of a wide variety of information and intrinsic value (Entwistle Tait, 1990). Approaches to learning comprise both what students do (when learning) and why they do it. After the qualitative and experimental work carried out by Marton and Saljo in 1976, Entwisle and Ramsden (1983) and Biggs (1987) were considered to be among the first to develop quantitative tools such as Course Perceptions Questionnaire (CPQ), Approaches to Study Inventory (ASI) and the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) for looking at a broader sample of university students approaches to learning. According to Entwistle (1997) the approaches to learning perspective drew attention to the outcomes of learning, which are congruent with the aims of teaching and made us think about the quality of learning in higher education. This perspective is also considered to have provided a great deal of knowledge about leaning in higher education (Case, 2008). Whereas Cuthbert (2005) says that the approaches to learning perspective provided knowledge about differences in the quality of engagement of the learner such as, learning for understanding, learning for reproduction or learning for achievement and that the learners approach to the learning task is dependent upon his/her conscious choices for learning. He further says that intentions for different tasks depend upon the nature of the task and the context; therefore it is possible to manipulate students intentions and achievement by manipulating the task and the context of learning. There have also been several criticisms of the approaches to learning perspective. One argument is that this perspective pays too much attention to the learning context and too little attention to the importance of student context such as cognitive issues, gender and past experience (Cuthbert, 2005). Therefore it is considered to have greater impact on teachers to improve their practice (Prosser Trigwell, 1997). Similarly the recent longitudinal study conducted by Case and Gunstone, (2006) pointed out the limitations of the approaches to learning perspective in ignoring the influence of students emotional condition, awareness, control, motivation, and end goals. Similarly, I am concerned about the limitations of our understanding that result from these studies that rather narrowly conceive of the students learning experiences. My study is designed to explore how students perceive their learning experiences taking into account personal factors such as gender, motivational beliefs, personal goals and career aspirations. Alienation and Engagement Perspective In response to the criticism of the limited scope of the approaches to learning perspective, Mann (2001) proposed the concepts of alienation and engagement and argued that these provide a broader and more contextualized picture of the learning experience. The concept of alienation has been very narrowly defined in the literature. Several authors (Mann, 2001; Case, 2008) have referred the concept of alienation as the state or experience of being isolated from a group or an activity to which one should belong or in which one should be involved (Oxford English Dictionary). In explaining the concept of alienation Mann (2001) has pointed out that several factors, such as current socio-cultural conditions, pre-existing experiences, cost to individual, loss of creativity, distribution of power, and assessment practices lead to student alienation while learning in higher education. He argued that we should reframe our view of students experiences of learning, from a focus on surface/strategi c/deep approaches to learning to a focus on alienated or engaged experiences of learning in higher education. In contrast to alienation, engagement is concerned with point of intersection between individuals and things that are critical for learning (Coates, 2006). While discussing the concept of engagement Fredricks, Blumenfeld Paris (2004) refer to three types of engagement: behavioral engagement, emotional engagement and cognitive engagement with each type being associated with positive academic outcomes and persistence in education. Several factors such as classroom structure, relationship with peers and teachers, nature of task, assessment type, autonomy and support in learning, previous grades, family background and available facilities are considered to have an impact on the nature and quality of engagement in learning (Fredricks et al, 2004; Case, 2008). The concept of student engagement is considered to be a useful means for assessing and responding to the significant dynamics, challenges and opportunities facing higher education institutions (AUSSE, 2008). This concept has recently gained considerable significance in the discussions about quality in education (Fredricks et al, 2004; AUSSE, 2008) and important reflections of this are to be found in the USA National Survey of student Engagement (NSSE) (NSSE, 2003) which started in 1999 and Australian Survey of Student Engagement (AUSSE, 2008) conducted for the first time in 2007. Although AUSSE and NSSE provide an insight in to the student learning in higher education by evaluating the experiences of academic challenge, active learning, relationships with staff, learning support and work integrated learning, they do not take account of motivational beliefs of the students, and how these impact on the students experience of learning in higher education. Though the concepts of alienation and engagement as discussed above and provide a useful picture of aspects of student learning in higher education, the critical dimension of how the students experience is formed and the students motivational profiles are not taken into account. Despite a great deal of knowledge and research about engagement there are several gaps in the literature and the definitions of the construct, measures and designs do not capitalize on what the concept of engagement can offer about learning (Fredricks et al, 2004). Therefore students experiences of learning and motivational beliefs need further exploration. The role of motivation in learning has been well established through extensive research at almost all educational levels (Schunk, 1982; Pintrich De Groot, 1990; Eccles, Wigfield, Harold Bluemenfeld, 1993). Motivation is the process by which goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained (Schunk,et al, 2008). Motivation can influence what, when and how we learn (Schunk et al, 2008) and it bears a reciprocal relationship to learning and performance (Pintrich, 2003; Shunck, 1995). Though the perspectives discussed above take into consideration the various aspects of learning higher education, the impact of motivational factors on the experiences of learning in higher education needs further exploration and research. Experiences of Learning from the Perspective of Motivational Beliefs In higher education, the experiences of learning can only be partially understood if the motivational beliefs of the students are not taken into account. There is thus a need to explore students experiences of learning in the context of motivation for learning. There have been several interpretations of the motivational beliefs of students, however in the literature on student motivation three motivational constructs of expectancy, value and effect are most widely referred to (Bandura, 1997; Pintrich and De Groot, 1990; Pintrich and Schunk, 2002; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000). These constructs have their roots in the social cognitive theory and work on the postulate that motivational processes influence both learning and performance (Schunk, 1995). Several achievement motivation theorists have attempted to explain peoples choice of achievement tasks, persistence on those tasks, vigor in carrying them out and performance on them (Eccles et al, 1998; Pintrich Schunk, 1996). One longstanding perspective on motivation is expectancy-value theory. In general expectancy-value theorists consider behavior choice, persistence and performance to be a function of the degree to which individuals judge their capabilities to perform designated courses of action (expectancy) and how they value these activities. According to expectancy-value theory three motivational components are very signifi

Friday, October 25, 2019

The Contribution of Social, Cultural, and Family Environment to the Dev

Analyse the extent to which the social, cultural and family environment may contribute to the development of eating disorders. Eating disorders have been found through centuries of doctors records. Some as far back as the seventeenth century through Morton (1694) descriptions of the symptoms of eating disorders during this period in time. Despite this eating disorders were only formally known as a disorder until 1980 when it was published in the DSM and more recent editions have shown that there are two different forms of eating disorders which are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. This assignment will discuss how social, cultural and family environment can contribute to the development of these eating disorders and why these factors greatly contribute to the development of these illnesses. The DSM V criteria of anorexia nervosa are refusal to maintain body weight, intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, disturbance in the way in which one sees their true body weight or shape, or denial of the seriousness of weight loss. The criteria for bulimia nervosa are, according to the DSM V, recurrent episodes of binge eating, recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behaviors to avoid weight again, a minimum average of two episodes of binge eating and two inappropriate compensatory behaviours a week, self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape and weight. Davis and Neale (2001) discovered that anorexia nervosa usually begins in the early to late teens and is ten times more frequent in women than men.According to Stirling and Hellewell (1999) In the UK it is believed that the disorder affects up to 1 percent of adolescent girls. However, the Eating Disorders Association (2000) reviewed that there... ...tween family members and the individual. Although some evidence suggests that individuals feel that they are not understood by their family members and also that their family do not understand why they took the measures they did to develop the disorder can aggravate the disorder. However, not enough evidence is provided to show whether the breakdown in communication was before, during or after the development of the eating disorder and therefore it is unclear whether the family environment can fully contribute to the development of an eating disorder. Works Cited Atkinson, R.L., Atkinson, R.C., Smith, E.E., Bem, D.J. (1990) Introduction to Psychology. 10th edition. HBJ. Gross, R. (2001) Psychology the Science of Mind and Behaviour. 4th edition. Hodder & Stoughton. Turner, L. (2003) Advanced Psychology: Atypical Behaviour.Hodder & Stoughton.

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Chinese Philosophy and Poetry Essay

One of the most prevalent beliefs of the Chinese philosophies is that men are born good. People are naturally good unless they fail to develop their feelings and senses. Confucianism teaches that a lack of knowledge can be the cause to evil. In Poem 238, a woman named Chiang Yuan gave birth to the human race by sacrificing and praying to God. She bore her child easily because she sought after blessings from God. Confucianism teaches that good things will come to those who are good and do good. A. N. Whitehead’s quotation of a Cambridge vicar says, â€Å"For well-conducted people, life presents no problems.† The mother in the poem seemed to be well-conducted and therefore she was blessed with a painless, easy childbirth. It says that God gave her ease and blessed her because he was pleased with the sacrifice and prayer. The poem paints a picture of how even the animals protected the baby. This might be because of their view of being born flawless and without evil. This baby was protected by the animals because there was no evil in him. Hou Chi, the baby boy, grew up to be a wise man and continued to be blessed and prospered through his crops and farming. He would be considered to be the â€Å"superior man† because of his moral wisdom and his ability to tell right from wrong. Because he lived by his mother’s example and gave sacrifices to God, good things came to him. The power of moral example is strongly shown here. His mother first taught him the importance of sacrifice and prayer and through that, he learned to do the same and show respect and fear God. Another philosophy is the importance of filial piety and reverence. Parents are revered because they give life to their children and sacrifice much for them. The child brought honor to his mother by keeping her religious traditions. God was pleased by his actions and blessed him his entire life. This is a very ideal form of what a man can be like, but it is very unrealistic. If man were actually born good, then evil would not have such a major influence and affect everyday lives.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Computerized Information System Essay

In Discovering Computers 2007 a Gateway to Information, a computer based information system is described as the â€Å"collection of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to produce quality information†. These information systems provide opportunities to improve student learning by providing alternate ways for learners to use technology in learning environments (Shelly, Cashman, Vermaat, Discovering Computers 2007), and they enhance management capabilities of teachers as well as school administrators. For example, in many schools today student management systems are being implemented which allow parents to view their child’s report card online, to observe classroom behavior over streaming videos and to go online to access their child’s lesson plan and or their homework assignments. These exciting and modern applications of computer based information systems not only gain popularity in the schools but in the home environment as well. Computer based information system has implications for student learning, classroom teaching, school administration as well as parental involvement. Information Systems for Student Access  Use of computer based information systems gives students access to information through the Internet, as well as by different methods of communication. A good example of an internet communication system is a distant learning class. This method of learning, allows students, especially the working class to take a class online, over the internet, instead of sitting in an actual classroom. This type of learning, provides a fun and innovative process for providing instruction over the World Wide Web and it gives people who work a more relaxed atmosphere where they can work at their own pace, at their home. Learning improves with the use of technology (Shelly, Cashman, Vermaat, Discovering Computers 2007). The learning environment does not stay in the classroom but opens up to the world. New ideas and new techniques can be used to make old curriculum seem new in the eyes of a student. Information Systems for Student Learning[edit] Although Information Systems can improve student learning, their use can sometimes lead to information overload. Sometimes we use so many sources of technology and switch from program to program that we don’t allow the students a chance to develop a level of confidence in using various tools. For example: In Mr. Watkins’ 9th grade class computer based information systems are in constant use. Mr. Watkins’ has students use Windows Movie Maker to demonstrate their knowledge of social studies concepts. In this information system, Mr. Watkins communicates to students by publishing assignments in their online folders. Students then use the software to develop their movies. Students also integrate other applications such as spreadsheets. Student movies are then published to a school portfolio for later showcase in the school social studies fair. Even though the students are being exposed to a variety of information, they may not have enough time or skill to develop the information. (figure 1). File:Teacher with computers. jpeg Mr. Watkins shows his class how to create a portfolio. Figure 1 Mr. Watkins, 9th grade teacher, St. Louis MO says, â€Å"Some students won’t have a problem using the various programs to develop their project, but other students might not have the skill or the comfort level to make a quality product†. (Mr. Watkins, 9th grade teacher, St.  Louis MO, (personal communication, January 20, 2009) Information Systems for Classroom Teaching[edit] In classroom teaching students use computers and software to assist with learning. A computer information system, will enhance classroom learning, by allowing the teachers to find more creative ways to teach, such as using electronic worksheets, in which students use the computer to research information and answer questions about their lesson. Scores can be recorded immediately and teachers can follow up with misunderstandings at the same time. In some situations teachers encourage students to computer based applications such as online tutorials because they focus on a particular skill. Information Systems for Teacher Productivity[edit] One advantage to using a computer information system is that it can automate tasks for teachers and administrators allowing them to spend time on other important tasks (such as writing lesson plans, grading papers, completing reports, etc. ) Another advantage of using a CIS is that it can help you to save data that is collected and then store it in one centralized place. This will allow anyone (administrators as well as state monitors) to view the data. For example: Ms. Harris, a 2nd grade teacher from Columbia, SC reports that: At our school we take surveys from our advisory board members, from the students, teachers and administrators. This data can be saved and at a later date be viewed or used in a comparison with other past or future data. The data can also be processed in to information that can be printed in a report. Similar to this, CIS allows students grades to be posted where parents can view their grades. This helps teachers to keep students accountable and parents informed. A disadvantage though to using a computer information system for this purpose is that it may cause frustration for educators that are not computer literate when new software is purchased and there is little or no time given to learn the software. This leads to misuse of the software or no use of it at all. Overall, computers are a good tool for the classroom that teachers and students can use them to make the learning endless. (figure 2). File:Femaleteacher. jpeg Ms. Harris talks to her students about information systems. Figure 2 Computers are a good tool for use in the classroom for teachers and students and they make learning endless. (Ms. Harris, 2nd grade teacher, Columbia, SC (personal communication, January 28, 2009) Information Systems for Administration[edit] Educational administrations or schools, use computer information systems because they prove to be useful tools in learning environments. In addition, they are fast, reliable, can store a large amount of data, are able to connect to other computers on a networking system, therefore able to share information, allow the students and teachers access to the Internet, etc.  CIS’s are resourceful and have become a great learning tool in educational settings. The use of technology is absolutely beneficial to learning process. One major problem with computer information systems is that sometimes technology is relied upon too much. Teachers and students almost forget that there were other ways to add math problems, to create hands on science projects, to play a musical instrument by hand and so on. It can make a person lazy and dependent on computers. Also, other problems consist of â€Å"broken† or misused technology that may result in needing some repair. Some teachers use a lot of technology in their classroom and their educational administrations rely on them as well. It is important that teachers and students are trained on the proper way to use the computers and students when using the computers, should be supervised. As far as equipment is concerned, there are times when the systems or networks are down and computers either run slower or problems may cause the system to shut down and you may lose unsaved work. That’s why it is always important to back up your hard drive, to have extra storage space and to have a warranty on your equipment.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

11 Taboos in Chinese Culture

11 Taboos in Chinese Culture Every culture has its own taboos, and it is important to remain aware of them when traveling or encountering another culture to ensure you dont commit a social faux-pas. In Chinese culture, some of the most common taboos involve gift-giving, birthdays, and weddings. Numbers According to Chinese tradition, good things come in pairs. Therefore odd numbers are avoided for birthday celebrations and weddings. To avoid bad things happening in pairs, activities such as burials and gift-giving are not performed on even-numbered days. In Chinese, the  number four (å››, sà ¬) sounds like the word for death (æ ­ », sÇ ). For this reason, the number four is avoided- particularly on phone numbers, license plates, and addresses. For addresses that do contain fours, the rent is usually less and apartments on the fourth floor are typically rented by foreigners. Work Shopkeepers may opt not to read a book at work because book (æ› ¸, shÃ… «) sounds like lose (è ¼ ¸, shÃ… «). Shopkeepers who read may be afraid their businesses will suffer losses. When it comes to sweeping, shopkeepers are careful not to sweep toward the door, especially during the Chinese New Year, in case good fortune is swept out into the street. When eating a meal, never turn over fish when you are with a fisherman as the motion symbolizes a boat capsizing. Also, never offer a friend an umbrella because the word umbrella (傘, sÇŽn) sounds similar to æ• £ (sn, to break up) and the act is a sign that you will never see each other again. Food Young children should not eat chicken feet as it is believed that doing so will prevent them from writing well when they start school. They may also become prone to fighting like roosters. Leaving food on one’s plate- particularly grains of rice- is believed to result in marriage to a spouse with many pockmarks on his or her face. Not finishing a meal is also believed to incur the wrath of the thunder god. Another Chinese taboo relating to food is that chopsticks should not be left standing straight up in a bowl of rice. This act is said to bring bad luck to restaurant owners as chopsticks stuck in rice look similar to incense placed in urns. Gift-Giving Since good things are believed to come in pairs, gifts given in pairs (except sets of four) are best. When preparing the gift, do not wrap it in white as that color represents sorrow and poverty. Certain gifts are also seen as inauspicious. For example, never give a clock, watch, or pocket watch as a gift because to send a clock (é€ Ã© Ëœ,  sà ²ng zhÃ… ng) sounds like the funeral ritual (é€ Ã§ µâ€š,  sà ²ng zhÃ… ng). According to Chinese taboo, clocks symbolize that time is running out. There are many other such ominous  Chinese gifts to avoid. If you give an unlucky gift by accident, the receiver can make it right by giving you a coin which changes the gift to an item they have symbolically purchased. Holidays It is a Chinese taboo to share stories about death and dying and ghost stories during special occasions and holidays. Doing so is considered extremely unlucky. Chinese New Year There are many Chinese New Year taboos  to be wary of. On the first day of the Chinese New Year, inauspicious words cannot be spoken. For example, words such as break, spoil, die, gone, and poor should not be uttered. During the Chinese New Year, nothing should be broken. When eating fish, diners must be careful to not break any of the bones, and be extra careful not to break any plates. Also, nothing should be cut during Chinese New Year as that signifies one’s life could be cut short. Noodles should not be cut and haircuts should be avoided. In general, sharp objects like scissors and knives are avoided during Chinese New Year. All windows and doors in the home should be open on New Year’s Eve to send out the old year and welcome the New Year. All debts should be paid by Chinese New Year and nothing should be lent on New Year’s Day. When preparing paper dragons for the Chinese New Year, it is taboo for women who are menstruating, people in mourning, and babies to be near the dragons when the cloth is being pasted to the dragon’s body. Birthdays One long noodle is typically slurped on one’s birthday. But revelers beware- the noodle should not be bitten or cut as this is believed to shorten one’s life. Weddings In the three months leading up to a couple’s wedding, they should avoid going to a funeral or wake or visiting a woman who has just had a baby. If one of the couple’s parents passes away before the wedding, the wedding must be postponed for 100 days, as attending happy celebrations during mourning is considered disrespectful to the dead. If a roasted pig is given as part of the bride’s gift to the groom’s family, the tail and ears should not be broken. Doing so would mean the bride is not a virgin. Fifth Lunar Month The fifth lunar month is considered an unlucky month. It is a Chinese taboo to dry blankets in the sun and build houses during this time. Hungry Ghost Festival The Hungry Ghost Festival is held during the seventh lunar month. In order to avoid seeing ghosts, people should not go outside at night. Celebrations such as weddings are not held, fishermen do not launch new boats, and many people opt to postpone their trips during the Hungry Ghost Month. The souls of those who die by drowning are considered to be in the greatest turmoil, so some people refuse to go swimming during this time to lessen the chance of a run-in with wayward ghosts.

Monday, October 21, 2019

Free Essays on Dylan Thomas Analysis

such as dignity, honor, wisdom, and integrity were strived to achieve. Now these virtues seem to have been swept under the rug. Dylan Thomas saw that it took work, blood and sweat to become the man that his father had become. He believed his father deserved the up most respect for the things he had endured through his life, because no one knows a father quite like his son. Despite the hardships Thomas’ father trudged through from day one, death is too deep to fight. The fact that his father is not as full-bodied and strong willed as before angers Dylan Thomas and in ‘Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night† he pleads his father not to pass away in this weakened state. It is as if his father has forfeited his life because the fight against death is too difficult. Since he has most likely never seen this side of his father is bothers him deeply and at least begs him to fight until the end. Before directly addressing his father, Dylan uses three different types of men as evidence that it is not hard to fight death and to stay strong through his last days. In the first stanza Thomas makes the initial plea to his father not to go gently into the good night. Then he personifies old age and says that it should â€Å"burn and rave at the close of day† which means to â€Å"bitch and whine† at the end of his life instead of giving up, according to Linda Sue Grimes a classic poetry aide. This poem is written in the form of a villanelle, and the purpose of this is to get a simple message across using repetition and few rhymes. Also, in the first stanza Thomas uses the light as a symbol for life, which is a universal symbol in poetry. In the second stanza, again trying to convince his father ... Free Essays on Dylan Thomas Analysis Free Essays on Dylan Thomas Analysis Dylan Thomas Analysis In the twentieth Century things were different from now. â€Å"Men† was not just a word referring to a male out of high school. One could go his whole life without ever really deserving the title of â€Å"man†. Also, other words such as dignity, honor, wisdom, and integrity were strived to achieve. Now these virtues seem to have been swept under the rug. Dylan Thomas saw that it took work, blood and sweat to become the man that his father had become. He believed his father deserved the up most respect for the things he had endured through his life, because no one knows a father quite like his son. Despite the hardships Thomas’ father trudged through from day one, death is too deep to fight. The fact that his father is not as full-bodied and strong willed as before angers Dylan Thomas and in ‘Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night† he pleads his father not to pass away in this weakened state. It is as if his father has forfeited his life because the fight against death is too difficult. Since he has most likely never seen this side of his father is bothers him deeply and at least begs him to fight until the end. Before directly addressing his father, Dylan uses three different types of men as evidence that it is not hard to fight death and to stay strong through his last days. In the first stanza Thomas makes the initial plea to his father not to go gently into the good night. Then he personifies old age and says that it should â€Å"burn and rave at the close of day† which means to â€Å"bitch and whine† at the end of his life instead of giving up, according to Linda Sue Grimes a classic poetry aide. This poem is written in the form of a villanelle, and the purpose of this is to get a simple message across using repetition and few rhymes. Also, in the first stanza Thomas uses the light as a symbol for life, which is a universal symbol in poetry. In the second stanza, again trying to convince his father ...

Sunday, October 20, 2019

Why Robots Might Soon Replace Truck Drivers

Why Robots Might Soon Replace Truck Drivers There are 3.5 million truck drivers in this country. But forecasts indicate that over the next 10 years, 1.7 million truck drivers might be out of a job and replaced with robots- the powers that be claim that driverless trucks would be safer and cheaper than the human-driven versions. It’s not just truckers. Analysts predict that, due to innovation in AI software and robot technology, the global workforce is in for a major change. 80 million American jobs alone are at risk in the next 10 to 20 years.The Drawbacks for the IndustryIf these predictions turn out to be accurate, then America is in danger of losing one of the last good-paying middle class jobs that does not require a college degree. Sure, other jobs would be created to maintain a driverless network- to help out with â€Å"the fleet†- but that might look like 1 human worker to every 10 driverless robots workers.It could also spur enormous demonstrations across the country. Imagine truckers ringing state capito ls with their rigs, demanding their jobs not be replaced. Particularly given the fact that driverless trucks are thought much more likely to roll out much faster than driverless taxis or other cars. In May of 2015, a self-driving truck hit the road in Nevada. And a whole convoy successfully drove across Europe using a technology called platooning, which allows trucks to connect via WiFi, GPS, and cameras with a lead vehicle setting speeds for the entire fleet.Prepare for the InevitableThe bottom line is this: the technology exists. The only thing standing in the way of a driverless trucking fleet is regulation. But given that the switch could save the industry about $168 billion annually (and could save quite a few lives), that’s only a matter of time.As Andy Stern, the former president of the Services Employees International Union, recently said to The  Guardian, this should lead to a critical discussion of wages, welfare, and employment in America- and could certainly mor e than justify an UBI, or Universal basic income. â€Å"From a business person’s perspective,† Stern says, â€Å"it’s about risk management. Do you want to ride around in an armored car and have guards with you? Do you want the Hunger Games? Or do you want a more fair and just society?†

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Standard Chartered marketing communication strategy and competitive Lab Report

Standard Chartered marketing communication strategy and competitive position - Lab Report Example According to the research findings Standard Chartered discovered marketing as the group expanded its operations from local perspective to a global perspective across diverse-cultural set of markets, Asia, Africa and Middle East for onstance. The bank admits the fact that it serves multiple geographies, different people with diverse values and significant cultures. This has enabled standard chartered to develop a strategy that focus on understanding of its markets’ core values to offer distinguished products and services to consumers with respect to their local requirements. The bank claims that it has developed a ‘consistent marketing strategy’ through constancy of efforts, stanch commitment to miscellaneous values and cultures and focused on relationships with local customers across the target markets. Standard chartered asserts that the bank has an unambiguous straight forward strategy that revolves around the market and consumers it serves. It has classified it s marketing strategy on two major areas: standard chartered for consumers and standard chartered as the corporate brand. Amongst consumers there are two set of markets: the individual consumers, who consume bank services for themselves; and second set is of business/commercial consumers, who utilize bank services for commercial purposes. Standard chartered has developed wholesale banking for commercial consumers’ category and consumer banking for individual consumers’ category. Marketing is an ever changing and sprouting discipline of businesses; companies always have a room for development and advancement. (Vanhuele and Wright, 2008). The bank has to broaden the base of its marketing communication strategy to effectively converse the different marketing messages, to different set of consumers it serves, in the most appropriate manner which could influence the target audience and trigger the desired response out of each target group. There are three marketing strategie s that fit Standard Chartered intent to serve the market: push, pull and profile strategies. The bank has to adopt these strategies as each meets a separate objective using a separate approach, thus, supporting the overall mission. Push strategy requires the bank to direct marketing activities to propel the products to consumers. It is more a selling concept, supports the sale organization of the bank and helps them design sales programs over push strategy (Kotler, 2009). It requires the bank to encourage and motivate the consumer, direct selling and negotiating with the prospects, emphasize point of sale promotions and advertisements, and performing other promotional activities to forcefully throw the banks’ offers and services to the consumer. It is appropriate for standard chartered as the retail banking structure in its target market: Asia, Africa and Middle East enable the bank to push its offers to consumers. Products/Services Push Consumers Pull strategy involves the b ank to design marketing activities in a manner that would fetch the consumers to the products and services themselves by enhancing their visibility (Kotler, 2009). It is more a branding concept for it supports the organization to design more customer-driven marketing programs that would develop strong bank-consumer rapport which is the ultimate objective of Standard chartered bank. It requires the bank to establish consumer associations with the bank through mass communication programs, mass-advertising campaigns, sales incentives and buzz marketing campaigns to create word of mouth influence. Pull strategy supports standard chartered ideology of understanding local consumers and markets, and their respective cultures, consequently, its attractive for effective communication strategy. Products/Services Pull Consumers Finally, the third marketing strategy which encompasses a broader marketing perspective is profile strategy. This strategy reveals the corporate reputation of an organi zation. It has deep orientation in corporate branding which identifies what an organization is

Friday, October 18, 2019

Negligence Liablity Case Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Negligence Liablity Case - Term Paper Example For an individual to be sufficiently culpable under the law it has to be shown that they intended a specific outcome that is in question. The law holds responsible an individual who fails to make proper decisions with regard to their individual conduct (Reitz, 2006). Contract law Business relationships are made and invariably involve contracts that range from leases to contracts of employment and contracts of professional services. Breach of contracts can often lead to action in courts of law, if the action succeeds an award of damages or an order of specific performance or an injunction can be given. In contract, drafting there is an implied term that services are to be undertaken with reasonable skill and care. There are various provisions. Contractual breaches can give rise to both actions of breach of contract and for negligence. Tort law In American law of tort, negligence has been seen as a distinct cause of action brought before the court system. The US system defines negligen ce as conduct falling below standard established and provided for by the law in a bid to protect others against such unreasonable risk of harm that can be borne from conduct. It is prudent for a cause of action to suffice five elements have to be present that is; duty of care was owed to the plaintiff by the defendant and that duty was breached and that there’s an actual causal connection between resulting harm and the defendant’s conduct and that there's a sufficient proximity between the cause and the foreseeable harm as in the case of Koprowski v. Manatee County, 519 So.2d 78 (Fla. App. 2 Dist. 1988) and as a consequence damage was caused. Sometimes legislatures or other laws as appropriate may provide for special duties of care, as in the instance of lawyers and doctors. Since they are also required to have a standard to which conforms to standard duty of care within their profession. When this professional fails to uphold that specified standard; will be inevitabl e in the form of malpractice charges, which are based on the law of negligence. Additionally, in McCarthy v. State, 562 N.Y.S.2d 190 (A.D. 1990) it was found by the court that US Consumer Product Safety Commission guidelines on the safety of playgrounds didn’t establish as a matter of law applicable standard of duty of care in a playground accident as evident in the court's inherent decision it was not mandatory that they are the exclusive standards to be applied for playground safety (White, 2003). Agency Law Causes of action under this law arise where the agency is held liable for tortuous acts of an agent. Generally, an agency is deemed negligent in providing the agent with the capability to engage in a particular conduct. Under the American law action may arise from; negligent supervision of the agencies agents, negligent training, and negligent retention of the agent. This type of negligence may seem to overlap with vicarious liability, they are however on distinct groun ds (Munday, 2008). Sometimes an agency might have their own guidelines in some cases not as in City of Miami v. Ameller, 472 So.2d 728 (Fla. 1985) where the court found the city’s own standards of duty could be considered in determining whether a city has violated its legal duty of care when maintaining its parks for safe public use. Corporate Law As evident from above businesses and individuals alike may be financially and legally liable for injuries occasioned by negligent

Oral Colonization of Mutans Streptococci in Young Children Research Paper

Oral Colonization of Mutans Streptococci in Young Children - Research Paper Example The bacterial properties (virulence factors) of these organisms favorable for colonization Can acquiring MS at early age influence incidences of dental caries in later years MS transmission routes. Whether nonmutans in oral flora affect colonization and or action of Mutans. Research question: what are the host and microbe factors influencing oral colonization by MS in young children. Materials and Methods: In the course of research paper preparation the microbiological as well as molecular biological approaches taken by the researchers would be presented. These are used to differentiate between mutans and nonmutans from oral cavity, production of mutacin and glucan, identification of different MS genotypes etc. The methods of longitudinal surveys used in various studies are also part of the intended research. Results and discussion: The results obtained in the chosen host and bacterial factors responsible for MS colonization would be presented. For the convenience of explanation of results the results and discussion are combined in this paper. The manuscript would contain at least a total of 7-8 tables and figures. These are integrated in the text and attached as per the instructions. The title page with author's (of this paper) name and affiliation, abstract, acknowledgement and a bibliography of all sources of literature also to be included in the paper. FULL PAPER Author (s): Affiliation(s): Oral colonization of mutans streptococci (MS) in young children ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to evaluate influence of host and bacterial factors on oral colonization by MS in young children. It was observed during the course of investigation that children acquired MS by horizontal as well as vertical transmission. More... As the report stresses  various surveys, in many countries, have indicated presence of a type of dental caries, early childhood caries. These decays of primary teeth lead to dental abscesses and toothache which often requires anesthesia for treatment. Colonization by mutans streptococci (MS), particularly S. mutans and S. sobrinus, is the major cause of ECC in young children. There are disputes regarding time of entry of oral MS in young children and whether these are part of normal oral microflora or not. Since colonization by MS could be targeted to relieve young children from experiences of ECC, the paper would critically discuss host and microbial factors important for transmission and colonization of these bacteria.  From this paper it is clear that  mutans was also detected in predentate children, despite a low caries rate. Together, these reports suggest that children may be colonized by S. mutans before the "window of infectivity" opens. A predentate infant is not likel y to have MS in salivary flow since swallowing occurs fast while bacterial divisions are only 2-4 times. MS could instead persist by forming adherent colonies on mucosal surfaces.   Tanner and coworkers have demonstrated that the fur ­rows of the tongue appear to be an important ecological niche for oral MS.   It is contrary to the prior observations that MS colonization occurs only at the time of primary teeth eruption.   

Optimality Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Optimality Theory - Essay Example Joseph Paul Stemberger And Barbara Handford Bernhardt "The Emergence of Faithfulness" http://www.linguistics.ubc.ca/People/Stemberger/S_B_1999.pdf. Stemberger & Bernhardt, 1999 asserted "The basis of OT is the use of constraints rather than rules. Rules within language are procedures that construct representations and alter them in particular ways. Constraints, in contrast, are limitations on what is possible in a system. Constraints can also lead to the alteration of a representation such that information is lost or added. From a cognitive-psychological perspective, however, the mechanisms are quite different". (Stemberger & Bernhardt, 1999, pp. 417-446) If we conceptualize phonology as part of the process for producing and understanding language, the phonological properties of language must result from the fact that it is an extremely practiced behavior linked with the vocal tract of human beings. To move away from the more theoretical views of phonology, it is perhaps helpful to compare speaking to other moderately complex but repetitive neuron-motor activities, such as playing the piano. While a person learns to play the piano, he or she learns not just to strike notes, but to strike notes in sequence. Every piece of music has its own sequence of notes that should be learned. Practice is essential; the motor patterns that guide to the fluent, striking of longer and longer sequences of notes should be automated for a piece to begin to sound like music. With practice, the transitions linking the notes become more fluent, and the speed of execution mechanically increases. In order to maintain the correct rhythm and tempo, the player should at times hold back and not play every note as fast as doable. Several analogies with the acquisition and use of phonology are observable. Children learn phonological sequences as parts of words, never separately of words. Articulatory routines that are by now mastered are called forth for the production of new words, leading to a propensity of children to expand their vocabulary by obtaining words that are phonologically comparable to those they already know (Ferguson and Farwell 1975, Lindblom 1992). This propensity leads to the structuring of the phonological sequences across words and the restrictive of the potentially massive phonetic inventory. Put another way, the repetition of gestures and sequences across words permits relations of identity and similarity to expand in stretches of speech, giving rise to segment, syllable, and foot-sized units. Through practice, speakers become more fluent in stringing words together and this fluency and automation is typified by the smoothing of transitions and overlapping of movements forced by the need to retain information value. Several repeated sequences become highly automated and abridged in form. At the same time, speakers should be able to access and recruit sequences into new combinations to state their thoughts and intentions. With practice, t

Thursday, October 17, 2019

US army reserve in Homeland Security Research Paper

US army reserve in Homeland Security - Research Paper Example The US Army Reserve should engage in Homeland Security and guarding the US borders. It provides trained units in addition to qualified individuals in times of need such as time of war, national emergency, and at times when national security may need them. The security issue within and outside the US is at stake; the number of immigrants is very high in the US because of the illegal entry and smuggling. The paper will expound on the military experience, homeland security expertise, global demand for army forces, and the operational environment in future as the main factors that make the Reserve Component fit for being utilized in Homeland security and guarding the US borders. The paper will also on how the loss of attention in some key areas in addition to pressure on the US economy pose challenge on the integration of the Reserve Component in Homeland Security and guarding the US borders. The Armed Forces Reserve Act of 1952 expounds on the roles of reserve forces. In section 201 (a) of the 1952 Act claims that the reserve components of the United States have specific roles. They provide trained units in addition to qualified individuals in times of need such as time of war, national emergency, and at times when national security may need them (Marcia, 2012). Often, reservists are only given the opportunity to volunteer for active duties. Participation in volunteering activities denies them the promotion opportunities like other active-duty armies.

Logistics and Supply Chain Management Coursework

Logistics and Supply Chain Management - Coursework Example A critical analysis and comparison of the supply chain networks of both the companies is done using the case studies provided to us. The analysis of the two cases has been done in line with the literature review. The final part of the document deals with two more companies in the fast fashion industry and compares their supply chain strategies with the strategies of H&M and Benetton whose case has been provided to us. The analysis of the two case studies provides us with an insight in to the importance of supply chain for the success of a firm. Supply chain is no longer considered just another element but is considered by many firms to be as important as marketing. It can drastically reduce the cost of the firm and give a strong competitive advantage to the firm which is hard and difficult to duplicate. Benetton was established in Italy in 1965.It has it presence in 120 countires.12 of its 18 factories are located in Italy. It sells its good through a network of 6500 retailers. It's positioning in the international market is that the company sells good quality garments which are moderately priced. With the analysis of the case we will critically analyse how Benetton has increased its supply chain by utilizing the "Dual Supply Chain" system. We will see how this system takes advantages of both the push and pull factors of the supply chain and increases the performance objectives for the company. H & M H &M case H & M is a well known Swedish company and has been a leader both in terms of market share and financial performance of the company. The company's strategy has been continuous expansion to search for the most promising markets available, to produce goods in a cost effective and fast manner and to reduce lead times drastically in order to reach the retailers quickly and capture changes in customer moods and preferences and provide longer shelf life for its products. H&M is also an example of how e-business solutions can be used to obtain competitive advantage in the supply chain of a company. Procurement and logistics can easily track the sales as they share a common IT platform with the retailers. This allows the company to react quickly to any changes in the trends prevalent in the market. H&M also has an efficient inventory management system which reduces the lead times for the firm and ensures efficient stock management. Literature Review Operation Strategy of a firm may be defined as set of principals adopted by the organization for decision making to achieve at a reconciliation of the market demand and the operational resources available to the

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

US army reserve in Homeland Security Research Paper

US army reserve in Homeland Security - Research Paper Example The US Army Reserve should engage in Homeland Security and guarding the US borders. It provides trained units in addition to qualified individuals in times of need such as time of war, national emergency, and at times when national security may need them. The security issue within and outside the US is at stake; the number of immigrants is very high in the US because of the illegal entry and smuggling. The paper will expound on the military experience, homeland security expertise, global demand for army forces, and the operational environment in future as the main factors that make the Reserve Component fit for being utilized in Homeland security and guarding the US borders. The paper will also on how the loss of attention in some key areas in addition to pressure on the US economy pose challenge on the integration of the Reserve Component in Homeland Security and guarding the US borders. The Armed Forces Reserve Act of 1952 expounds on the roles of reserve forces. In section 201 (a) of the 1952 Act claims that the reserve components of the United States have specific roles. They provide trained units in addition to qualified individuals in times of need such as time of war, national emergency, and at times when national security may need them (Marcia, 2012). Often, reservists are only given the opportunity to volunteer for active duties. Participation in volunteering activities denies them the promotion opportunities like other active-duty armies.

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 9

Psychology - Essay Example Selye’s studies showed that the body responds in the same way to any stress, be it positive events (new job) or negative circumstances (failure, embarrassment, trouble at school, a stormy romance). ALARM STAGE: Alarm stage suggests that the body is in the generalized arousal state, wherein the body mobilizes its resources to cope with stressors. The pituitary gland signals the adrenal glands to produce and release stress hormones: adrenaline, noradrenaline, and cortisol. As these stress hormones are dumped into the bloodstream, some bodily processes are rushed others are slowed, allowing bodily resources to be applied where they are needed. We should all be thankful that our bodies automatically respond to emergencies. However, brilliant as this emergency system is, it can also cause problems. In the first phase of the alarm reaction, people have such symptoms as headache, fever, fatigue, sore muscles, shortness of breath, diarrhea, upset stomach, loss of appetite, and lack of energy. Notice that these are also the symptoms of stressful travel, of high-altitude sickness, of anxiety, of pressure in the courtroom interrogation, or final exams week, and possibly of falling in love! RESISTANCE STAGE: During the resistance stage, the body continues to resist the stressors. As the body’s defenses come into balance, symptoms of the alarm reaction disappear. Outwardly, everything seems normal. However, this appearance of normality comes at a high cost. The body is better able to cope with the original stressor, example, animals placed in extreme cold become more resistant to the cold, but more susceptible to infection. It is during the stage of resistance that the first signs of psychosomatic disorders begin to appear. EXHAUSTION STAGE: Continued stress leads to the stage of exhaustion in which the body’s resources are drained and stress hormones are depleted. The body is susceptible to disease and even death in this stage. Unless you found a way of

Monday, October 14, 2019

Fashion and Design: History of 1940s to 1950s

Fashion and Design: History of 1940s to 1950s Introduction Fashion is a heating issue in daily life, which is close to nearly every aspect of society. As the expansion of globalisation, fashion companies are seeking to more opportunities in international market by establishing subsidiaries all over the world. According to Helen (1965), fashion design is using dedicated art in clothing and accessories to establish a unique style. In todays fashion field, Italy is considered in the leading place for its elegant and dedicated style. However, France and Japan are also produce excellent designers who have gained international reputation in fashion design and establish famous brands. The history of fashion design could be dated back to 19th century with Charles Frederick Worth to sew label into the garments, and only clothing created after 1858 could be considered as fashion design1. During that historical period, most fashion designers are self-employed in a family-based clothing shop and provide design service to individual customer, which are quite different from todays specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. During the whole 20th century, fashion design had gradually been developed systematically and has become an important industry in society. It is therefore useful for analyzing the fashion history of 20th as a guide for the new centurys development. This essay will pick up specific decade between 1940 and 1950 as the research target. Background information of 20th century fashion design The development of fashion design in 20th century has experienced a unique process. The first decade of the century was a period to pursue new element into the design (Baudot, 1999). The emergence of new female generation and solid trend in arts had stimulated fashion design to combine new elements. The Europe trend was still focused on elegance and grace, while U.S trend was developed to natural style, provided a step from the dedicated style of 19th century. Between1910-1919, there was a great change in fashion design influence by Deco arts. The distinct character of Deco arts was the use of straight and folded line. It brought a boyish style in the fashion design to adopt a concision style and add some eastern elements. During next decade, the fashion design added girlish style to the clothes and continue to keep the youth elements in the design. Chanels style created by combination of coat, skirt and dress privailed and expanded until nowadays. Another characteristics is the atte ntion on sport clothes design. There is also fashion design trend in China with the amend of traditional cheong-sam. 1930-1939 was an important decade for the fashion design. In reaction to the economic crisis, the patch-up skirts which represented saving appeared. Then a long skirt lap prevailed until the Second World War. The broken of war stimulated a trend of nostalgic new Victorian style. Another important contribution of this decade is the establishment of modern fashion design criteria, combining the elements of elegance, beauty and taste to emphasize the corresponding of clothes and circumstances. The next decade, also the target period in the research, is 1940-1949. The luxurious style during the war time was restricted by law and moral codes. Practicality had become a criteria for fashion design. The pursue of function made the women clothes be input more male elements by the prevail of army clothes and frocks. The war time also provided America with the chance of developi ng its own fashion design instead of totally relying on Europe. Aims of the research Nowadays, fashion designers create their original work to express their unique taste and style. However, they also produce works to follow the existing fashion trends. They are hired by mass market manufacturers to create clothes for men, women and children. The most successful designer brands today are those brands with long history, such as Chanel, Christian Dior and Louis Vuitton. It took them years to establish and develop their positions as fashion icons. In regard to the historical context, 1900-1950 is a very important revolution in fashion history, manufactures started more creative on the design of their clothes. Fashion design corporations have to produce their own brand with high quality and reputation to survive and compete in the promising market. To define and understand what constitutes fashion design and how fashion design has emerged in todays time as place the fashion design in certain imperative time periods is important way to understand fashion industry. The aim of this research is to present fashion design in the decades of 1940-1950 to explore the relationship between fashion design and a series of factors, such as arts, health beauty, science technology, and so on. Fashion Design and Its Related Factors Arts Before 20th century, fashion design is only a passive reflection of arts. When came to 20th century, especially the decade between 1940 and 1950, fashion designers were willing to cooperative with arts. They combined their design with major arts genre. Schiaparells desk clothes and laniate clothes are representation of super-realism (Buxhaum, 1999). During this period, the popular music trend was bop and big band. In the dance area, jive, swing and foxtrot was in the heating position. All the trends in arts have influenced fashion design deeply. All this new ideas brought fashion market into a new generation. At this time, enterprise were normally operation by designers them or family business. Politics and current events The most influential event during this period is the Second World War. War as an important factor to change the history of human being, as well as the development of fashion design. During the decade after the Second World War, fashion design had a great transformation. Womens fashion of the beginning of the decade was masculine, and by the end of the decade2 it changed to extremely feminine. During the war time, the fashion design style was changed from elegance, dedicated to concision, while it was emphasized on feminine again after the war. Moreover, the pursue of practical function during the war time enabled the fashion designer to add more male elements in designing female clothes, some even used male manner into women design (Marsha, 1993). The strictly restriction on dressing was also carried out in several countries, for example, there was a point system in Britain to restrict the dressing style of women, set out a series of rules to lead womens dressing way (Janet, 1977). T his kind of restriction not only put on female dressing, but also guided males way of dressing. Males uniform style was most affected part such as utility suit of Britain and victory suit of America (Boucher, 1987). The whole decade was dominated by the wartime practical function and the after-war feminine style. Health sport After 1945 a series of revolutionary changes took place in sports clothe. Firstly, pullover dresses, underwear and gym tops often used new range of synthetic fibres which suited in the early days of production to knitted fabrics. During the fifties, some earlier inventions and new use of synthetic fibres particularly nylon combined with practical techniques developed in military clothing were introduced into civilian production. For example, hoods that were concealed in neck collars; pockets in jacket fronts which were designed to store snack foods; gloves with zip pockets for ski passes; elastic inserts in the sides of ski pants and stirrup straps underfoot made for pull on, pull off clothes. These features are expected by us automatically today. In addition, nylon running shorts and cotton vests3 were adopted by athletes. Zip up windcheaters and anoraks were taken onto the athletics and sports field, though trouser bottoms often appeared to be odd, they helped to keep off the chill . Stretch garments became quite popular by the mid sixties; and one attractive advantage was the comfort factor of being able to move with a garment. Hair beauty In this decade the most popular hair styles is tresses curled and rolled longer. The movie stars of that time such as Veronica Lake and Lauren Bacall gave the best demonstration of the long curling styles. Though putting your hair up into compact elegant up-dos was the standard style for weddings and proms, this kind of occasions became rarer and rarer. World War II heavily influenced the beauty industry in this decade. The fashion, cosmetics used and beauty standards were affected by the mood of sad and depression. As Ingrid Bergman showed in the 1942 movie Casablanca, a typical beauty style should try to demonstrate serious, glamorous in a very subdued, sophisticated way4. A wholesome look was much more acceptable than showy. The mood for excess and flamboyancy was considered as inadequate, both because the effects of the Depression still were influencing peoples life, and because a lot of American young men were sending to European battlefields to fight and die. Celebrity The fashion icon in this period was Rita Hayworth. The Great American Love Goddess was born in Brooklyn, New York. She represented the most fashionable style of 1940s in the movies of The Strawberry Blonde (1941), and Blood and Sand (1941). The musicals You`ll Never Get Rich (1941) and You Were Never Lovelier (1942), both with Fred Astaire, My Gal Sal (1942), with Victor Mature, and Cover Girl (1944), with Gene Kelly, made her a musical star and a favourite pinup girl of American servicemen during WWII (Stach, 1987). Science technology The development of science and technology enable fashion design develops from hand-made family workshop to the machinery production. The importance of customer design began to be recognised. As the improvement of manufacture technology, the ready-to-wear clothes were considered to be the major issue during this period. The science of human body stimulates the establishment of comprehensive size system for clothes. The technology also made the manufacturing of clothes divided into three categories: Haute Couture clothes, senior ready-to-wear clothes and ordinary ready-to-wear clothes. Meanwhile, the expansion of materials scope provided sufficient basis for designers to express their unique style in their masterpieces. Although the battle broke out over the world, new products came out at the same time. Nylons were sold to the public in 1940 when the battle of Britain started. In the next year, Japanese attacked Pearl Harbour, and the jeep was invented in the same year. In 1942, when the battle of Midway and the battle of Stalingrad broke out, T-shirt was introduced to the public. Moreover, the advancement of social science also played great role in the fashion design within the period. People established positive attitudes towards beauty as well as fashion design and were tolerance on prevailed trends, which enabled some subculture trend become popular in the mainstream of the society. Conclusion 1940-1950 was an important period in fashion design due to the influence of World War II. Affected by the war, many fashion corporations closed such as Maision Vionnet and Maison Chanel, while others relocated in New York (Turner, 1958). Pariss leading place was still continued although Germany was taking half of French manufacturing and was considering relocate the original French haute couture to Berlin. The faith of fashion design was established and developed quickly (Peacock, 1998). Its enomous change was driven by several factors include arts, political events, hair beauty, science technology, etc. Conduct research on this specific decade is not simply dating back to the history, it is also provides sufficient information for the development of fashion design in the new century. References: Books: Baudot, F. (1999) A Century of Fashion. London: Thames Hudson Ltd. Boucher, F. (1987) A History of Costume in West , London: Thames Hudson Ltd. Buxhaum, G. (1999) Icons of Fashion, the 20th century. NY: Verleg. Helen, B. (1965). The Theory of Fashion Design, New York: John Wiley and Sons. Janet, A. (1977). Patterns of Fashion 2: Englishwomens Dresses and Their Construction c. 1860-1940, Wace 1966, Macmillan 1972. Revised metric edition, Drama Books. James, L. (1979). The Concise History of Costume and Fashion, Abrams. Marsha, H. (1993). The Way We Wore: Styles of the 1930s and 40s and Our World Since Then, Fallbrook Pub. Ltd. Peacock, J. (1998) Fashion Sourcebooks, the 1940s. London: Thames Hudson Ltd. Stach, L. (1987). Hollywood and Seventh Avenue: The Impact of Historical Films on Fashion, in Hollywood and History: Costume Design in Film, Los Angeles County Turner, W. (1958). The Mode in Fashion, 1942; 2nd expanded edition New York: Scribners. Websites: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Frederick_Worth http://www.artdesignfashion.com/timelines/ http://www.fashion-era.com/sports_fashion_until_1950.htm http://www.lphouse.com/hairstyles-1940s.htm

Sunday, October 13, 2019

Twisted :: essays research papers

Twisted Audience: General Audience / Instructor Purpose: Literary work To explain how a tornado can affect a family. Thesis Sentence: Although an event may be traumatic it is not necessarily life changing. Outline: I. Describe the setting A. Where / When B. What was heard 1. What did the tornado sound like 2. How did parents direct us C. What was seen 1. How did the storm look 2. What did the tornado look like II. What was on the farm A. House B. Storm Cellar C. Animals D. Trees E. Newly plowed and planted fields III. Where did we go A. Root cellar B. Neighbor III. What did the tornado do A. To the farm B. To the family I guess everyone experiences at least one terrifying event in his or her lifetime. How we assimilate the event shapes our attitudes, or maybe vice-versa. It can become the catalyst that lead, to phobias; sometimes it even earns itself a fancy title with â€Å"syndrome† attached to the end of it. I just call it a memory, but one I shared with eight other people. In a north central Indiana cornfield, not far from Indianapolis, my father returned to his chores in the field after a brief rain shower had passed. The edge of an enormous thunderstorm, laced with brilliant lightning, had passed overhead and it seemed as if the worst of the storm was over. Life was not easy on the fertile soil of Wabash County, Indiana, on May 25, 1966. For my family, life was about to become even harder. A muffled roar in the distance grew louder and sharper. As dad began to move toward the house, he realized that the low, indistinct form in the distance was not rain or a patch of fog. It was a rotating transparent funnel, beneath a dark mass of cloud. It extended from under the southwest corner of the thunderstorm. An occasional snake-like form would briefly appear within the cloud, and then suddenly vanish. It was coming directly toward our farm. The next time he looked, three or four contorted and transparent columns would briefly circle the center of what looked like a patch of swirling mist. The cloud looked nothing like the thin funnels and ropes that we had seen in the distance every few years. Dad now ran at full speed for the house, trying with each breath to shout "Twister!" Within the next few seconds, nine people would make life or death decisions about self-preservation, about prized possessions, and about family members. The rotating cloud had changed from transparent mist to a solid brown mass, at the edge of the newly

Saturday, October 12, 2019

Eddie Carbone in A View From the Bridge by Arthur Miller Essay

Eddie Carbone in A View From the Bridge by Arthur Miller The play â€Å"A view from the bridge† is set in Red hook area of New York, the play was written by a man called Arthur Miller he wrote this particular play in 1950 at the age of 35. His parents were immigrants in the United States of America, they had lived a wealthy life this all went wrong along with the American economy. Arthur Miller worked as a warehouse man, and in order to save his fees he went to Michigan University in 1934, to study economics and history. He did a course in playwriting and this became his ambition, he graduated from Michigan University in 1938. Eddie Carbone is the main character in the play, at the start of the play he is a very popular hardworking man then towards the end of the play he becomes a very angry distressed and jealous, and eventually loses his life by getting stabbed by his own knife. Eddie is mainly responsible for his own downfall because he didn’t want Catherine (his niece) to get married to her lover, Rodolfo. Rodolfo and Marco (his brother) are staying with the Carbones as illegal immigrants. Eddie becomes angry because he believes that Rodolfo is taking Catherine away from him this leads him to betray his family by reporting them to the immigration bureau. I think that â€Å"A view from the bridge† is a tragedy because of eddies extreme downfall, he dies because of one mistake. Throughout the play Eddie is jealous of Catherine because she is not his little girl anymore she is turning into a woman. Eddie is an Italian longshore man working on the New York docks. When eddies wife’s cousins, Marco and Rodolfo seek refuge, as i... ...to prevent. I think Eddie is mainly responsible for his own downfall but Catherine could have played some part in causing it because of her getting together with Rodolfo. Eddie never liked Rodolfo from when he first met him he always thought he was weird. Rodolfo also may be responsible for eddies downfall because he never asked eddies permission to get together with her. Marco is Beatrice’s cousin and after Marco and Rodolfo have been in jail they get bailed out and Marco goes after Eddie. Eddie is alone at this stage Marco hits Eddie lunges at Marco with a knife that is meant to kill him. Beatrice tells Eddie to stop but Eddie ignores her like he does throughout the whole play. Then as the knife is in eddies hand it is grabbed by Marco turned and drove into eddies body, within two minutes Eddie carbone is dead.

Friday, October 11, 2019

Examine the problems some sociologists may face when using different kinds Essay

?Examine the problems some sociologists may face when using different kinds of experiments in their research (20 Marks) To have control over variables and the environment they are researching, sociologists often use laboratory experiments in research. Lab experiments are used to test a hypothesis in a controlled environment, by altering an independent variable to see the dependant variable being tested changes. Positivists favour this method of research as it is a more scientific approach to research, which aims to identify correlations and patterns in behaviour whilst gathering quantitative data. Carrying out such experiments can cause practical issues for sociologists. One of the main practical issues is that the effect of society on people’s behaviour is very complex, and it is very difficult for researcher’s using lab experiments to identify and control all the variables that may have an influence on behaviour. It would be impossible for a sociologist to research all the influencing factors in a lab experiment, as this is far too complex to carry out in one controlled environment. Furthermore, lab experiments usually involve the study of a small sample as it would not be possible to study a large group of individuals in a controlled laboratory, unless you had a lot of time and this could become costly. This makes it difficult to research large scale social issues that affect behaviour and may also reduce the representativeness of research carried out. For example, Stanley Milgram carried out research on obedience to an authorative figure. He wanted to investigate whether Germans were particularly obedient to authority figures as this was a common explanation for the Nazi killings in World War II. To do so he studied 40 Americans all of whom were male. This is a small scale sample which only represents males and is ethnocentric to American males; therefore it would be difficult to generalise findings to the wider population and other countries. The unnatural settings of a lab experiment means the participants are aware of the experiment taking place. This creates what is called the ‘hawthorne effect’ where the behaviour the participants changes in response to the artificial surrounding and the fact they know they are being studied. As a result this reduces the validity of the results as the participants are not behaving in true-to-life ways and this would not provide a true account of the behaviour being researched. Interpretivists argue that the unnatural setting and low validity means that sociologists cannot gain verstehen, an empathetic understanding of the world from the viewpoint of those being studied. Furthermore, there are ethical issues when conducting experiments on human beings. As a general rule, researchers must gain the informed consent from the research participants. However, when researching child participants or people with learning difficulties it may be difficult to gain informed consent as they would not full understand what they are consenting to